The Crisis of Secular Democracy in Turkey: Historical Dynamics and the Rise of Political Islam

Giorgi Koberidze

Assistant-Professor

Georgian Institute of Public Affairs

Tbilisi, Georgia

Abstract

This article reports on findings from my PhD thesis, The Crisis of Secular Democracy in Turkey: Historical Dynamics and the Rise of Political Islam. It examines the underlying causes of Turkey’s secular democracy crisis by exploring the evolution of secularism and its relationship with political Islam. Starting with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s vision for a secular Turkish state, the study investigates how authoritarian methods used to implement secular reforms created an inherent tension between secularism and democratic principles. Key turning points such as the military coups of 1960 and 1980 are analyzed as moments that reshaped Turkish politics, ultimately weakening democratic and secular institutions. Additionally, the influence of external factors, including regional instability and shifting foreign policy, are considered in relation to Turkey’s internal secular-democratic structures. Through qualitative analysis, including interviews and data from Polity 5 and The Economist Intelligence Unit, the study concludes that Turkey’s failure to harmonize secularism with democratic values has led to authoritarian tendencies, as exemplified by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan’s governance. Despite ongoing challenges, the resilience of Turkey’s secular institutions and strong opposition forces continue to impact the nation’s political trajectory.

Keywords: Secularism, democracy, Turkey, political Islam, Atatürk, military coups, Erdoğan, authoritarianism, Turkish politics, neo-Ottomanism, democratic crisis

General Overview

Turkey’s political landscape presents a unique case of secularism intertwined with the complexities of a predominantly Muslim society. Since the founding of the Turkish Republic in 1923 by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the nation has sought to establish a secular and democratic state, diverging sharply from its Ottoman predecessor. Atatürk’s reforms aimed to break away from the theocratic structure of the Ottoman Empire and lay the foundation for a modern, secular Turkey. These reforms, however, were implemented in an authoritarian manner, relying on strict governmental control and military backing to secure compliance. While these changes fundamentally altered Turkey’s political and social identity, they created a paradox: secularism was enforced through undemocratic means, setting the stage for tensions that would later destabilize the very democracy it aimed to uphold.

Following Atatürk’s death, Turkey faced multiple political shifts, including military interventions and the resurgence of political Islam, especially in rural areas. These events reflect the challenges of reconciling secularism with the democratic aspirations of a diverse society. Political Islam gained further traction with the rise of leaders who embraced more religiously oriented policies, shifting the ideological balance. This gradual re-Islamization, coupled with nationalistic sentiments, redefined Turkey’s political landscape, leading to an era where democracy and secularism were frequently at odds.

Objectives of the Study

This study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of Turkey’s struggle with secular democracy, examining the underlying factors that have contributed to the erosion of democratic principles and the rise of authoritarianism. The objectives are as follows:

1. To trace the historical development of secularism in Turkey, focusing on the reforms initiated by Atatürk and the authoritarian methods used to implement them.

2. To investigate how democratic reforms, introduced in the post–World War II era, facilitated the rise of political Islam and the subsequent challenges to secular governance.

3. To analyze the role of military interventions, particularly the coups of 1960 and 1980, in shaping Turkey’s political landscape and its implications for both secularism and democracy.

4. To evaluate the influence of external factors, such as regional instability and Turkey’s foreign policy, on its internal secular-democratic structures.

5. To assess the contemporary political environment under Recep Tayyip Erdoğan’s administration, focusing on how political Islam has reshaped democratic values and institutions in Turkey.

Key Challenges

Turkey’s pursuit of secular democracy faces a set of enduring challenges, both internal and external. Internally, the secularism implemented by Atatürk, though transformative, left a democratic deficit, as it was accompanied by limited public participation and strict oversight by military elites. This created a secular elite who, while promoting modernity, struggled to connect with rural and religious segments of Turkish society. Consequently, the rural population and conservative factions began to view secularism as an elitist imposition rather than a democratic ideal, setting the groundwork for societal polarization.

Military interventions, intended to preserve the secular state, have paradoxically weakened democratic institutions, contributing to a cycle of instability and polarization. Each intervention, notably the 1980 coup, has left a legacy of diminished civil liberties, distrust in government, and increased receptiveness to religious political influence. These challenges were compounded by educational reforms favoring religious values, thus creating a cultural shift in urban areas that further strained the secular elite’s influence.

Externally, geopolitical shifts, especially the collapse of the Soviet Union and conflicts in the Balkans and Caucasus, have led Turkey to reassess its regional influence through a neo-Ottoman and pan-Islamic lens. This shift, aligned with Erdoğan’s policies, has intensified Turkey’s engagement with Islamic identity in both foreign and domestic policies, contributing to an environment where secularism faces significant pressures.

The path toward secular democracy in Turkey has been fraught with ideological and institutional tensions, as secularism’s authoritarian origins have posed long-term democratic challenges. The enduring influence of political Islam, compounded by internal divisions and external pressures, continues to challenge Turkey’s secular framework. This study seeks to unravel these complexities, providing insights into the historical, ideological, and social factors that have shaped the evolution and the ongoing crisis of secular democracy in Turkey.

Research Design

This study employs a qualitative research approach to investigate the complexities of secularism and democracy in Turkey, tracing the historical evolution of these principles and examining the ideological and political forces that have influenced them. A qualitative approach is particularly well-suited to understanding the socio-political dynamics and nuanced shifts in Turkish society, as it allows for an in-depth exploration of attitudes, values, and institutional changes over time. Through this approach, the study aims to uncover the root causes of Turkey’s secular-democratic crisis, while contextualizing its findings within the broader historical and socio-political landscape.

The research draws on a combination of primary and secondary data sources, including:

Interviews: Five semi-structured interviews were conducted with political scientists, historians, and analysts specializing in Turkish politics and secularism. The interviews were designed to gather expert insights on the evolving nature of secularism in Turkey, the political influence of military interventions, and the rise of political Islam. Interview questions focused on the success of Atatürk’s secular reforms, the level of public support for these reforms, the military’s role in political developments, and the ideological shifts that have accompanied Erdoğan’s administration. The semi-structured format allowed for flexibility, enabling the respondents to elaborate on key issues and provide unique perspectives.

Secondary Sources: The study relies on a range of secondary sources, including academic literature, historical analyses, and policy reports. Key sources include scholarly works on Turkish secularism and democracy, analyses of Atatürk’s reforms, and assessments of Turkey’s political environment under the Democratic Party and Justice and Development Party (AKP). Sources from The Economist Intelligence Unit, Polity 5, and the annual reports of global institutions provide data on Turkey’s democratic ratings and institutional changes over time.

Archival Documents and Official Records: Archival documents, government records, and official publications were analyzed to assess legislative changes, military directives, and policy statements related to secularism and political Islam. These documents provide a foundational understanding of the legal and institutional measures used to implement secularism in Turkey and the evolving role of religion in state affairs.

Open-Source Data: Data from sources such as the Economist Intelligence Unit and Polity 5 were used to examine Turkey’s democratic trajectory over the decades. These datasets offer quantitative indicators of Turkey’s democratic and autocratic trends, providing an objective basis to assess changes in political freedoms and state control over religion.

The analytical framework for this study is structured around core methodologies:

Historical Analysis: Historical analysis is employed to trace the evolution of secularism in Turkey, beginning with Atatürk’s reforms and extending through to the present day. By examining the historical context of key political developments, this analysis seeks to understand how secularism was institutionalized, the challenges it faced, and the socio-political consequences of military interventions.

Comparative Analysis: Comparative analysis is used to examine Turkey’s secular-democratic experience in relation to other nations with similar religious or authoritarian backgrounds. This allows for a broader understanding of secularism’s viability and challenges in predominantly Muslim societies and provides insights into the unique factors that shape Turkey’s secularism.

Content Analysis: Content analysis was conducted on policy documents, speeches, and legislative acts from various political eras, including the Atatürk, Democratic Party, and AKP periods. This approach enabled a systematic examination of the language and themes used to frame secularism, democracy, and political Islam. By analyzing the content of these documents, the study identifies shifts in state rhetoric, ideological positioning, and the political use of secularism and religion.

Case Studies: The study utilizes case studies of significant political events, including the 1960, 1980, and 1997 military coups, to explore their impact on secularism and democracy in Turkey. These case studies highlight the relationship between military interventions, political Islam, and secularism, allowing for a focused analysis of critical junctures in Turkey’s political history.

Limited Access to Primary Sources: Certain primary sources, especially official documents related to Turkey’s military interventions, were difficult to access due to government restrictions. This limitation necessitated reliance on secondary sources and historical interpretations to construct a comprehensive picture.

Given the sensitive nature of the topic, some respondents were hesitant to discuss certain political developments openly, particularly regarding recent political shifts and the role of Erdoğan’s administration. To address this, assurances of confidentiality were provided, and open-ended questions were used to allow participants to discuss sensitive issues more freely.

Since a significant portion of Turkey’s historical records and academic literature is in Turkish, the process of translation posed a challenge. Efforts were made to ensure accuracy in translating key terms, especially those related to secularism and political Islam, as slight nuances in terminology could affect the study’s findings.

Key Events and Historical Developments in Turkey’s Secular and Democratic Trajectory

This chapter presents an overview of significant events that have shaped Turkey’s secular and democratic journey. These events reflect the complex interplay between secular reforms, political Islam, military interventions, and the evolving role of democracy. The following account is based on primary and secondary sources, historical documents, and expert interviews that have contributed to understanding Turkey’s unique political context.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s leadership marked a pivotal period for secularism in Turkey. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, Atatürk sought to redefine Turkey as a secular, modern state. His reforms aimed at institutionalizing secularism involved significant changes:

Abolition of the Caliphate: In 1924, Atatürk abolished the Caliphate, symbolizing a clear break from the Ottoman legacy of religious governance. This act was intended to reduce Islam’s influence on Turkish political and public life.

Educational Reforms: Secular education policies were implemented to replace religious schools with state-run, secular institutions. This was a crucial step in establishing secularism at the societal level, intending to create a population aligned with modern, secular values.

Legal and Civil Reforms: Atatürk’s administration replaced Islamic law with secular civil law based on European models. The adoption of the Swiss Civil Code in 1926 was one of the cornerstones of these legal reforms.

These reforms were enforced through authoritarian means, often using military power to suppress dissent. Despite achieving some level of secularization, this period planted seeds of resistance, as many Turks continued to view Islam as integral to their identity.

Following World War II, Turkey transitioned toward a multi-party system, leading to the rise of the Democratic Party (DP), which won the 1950 elections. The DP, led by Adnan Menderes, represented a shift from the rigid secularism of Atatürk’s Republican People’s Party (CHP) to a more moderate approach that recognized religious elements in public life. The DP permitted the reopening of religious schools and allowed the call to prayer to be recited in Arabic, reversing some of Atatürk’s strict secular policies. The DP’s policies spurred socio-political divides, with conservative rural populations largely supporting the DP’s pro-Islamic stance, while the urban secular elite remained aligned with the CHP’s strict secularism. Amid rising tensions and political polarization, the Turkish military staged a coup in 1960, citing concerns that the DP’s policies endangered Atatürk’s secular legacy. The coup led to the execution of Menderes and the restoration of more secular policies, emphasizing the military’s self-perceived role as the guardian of secularism.

The 1970s were marked by political instability, economic challenges, and ideological conflicts between leftist and rightist factions. The resulting social unrest led to the military’s intervention in 1980, resulting in another coup. The military justified the coup by arguing that secularism and national unity were at risk.

A new constitution reinforced military influence in politics while also introducing policies that paradoxically encouraged moderate political Islam as a counterbalance to leftist ideologies. This marked a departure from previous secular strategies, as Islam became a tool to promote national unity.

The military authorized the opening of imam-hatip schools, religious institutions aimed at educating clergy, which ultimately broadened religious education’s appeal to the general population. This expansion laid the foundation for future political mobilization rooted in Islamic values.

The political atmosphere created post-1980 fostered the rise of Islamist parties, including Necmettin Erbakan’s Welfare Party (Refah Partisi). By mobilizing religious communities, Erbakan gained popularity, marking a shift from a solely secular state to one where political Islam was gaining ground.

In the 1990s, Erbakan’s Welfare Party gained significant support among conservative Turks, especially in rural areas, advocating for policies that resonated with traditional Islamic values. Erbakan’s rise to the position of Prime Minister in 1996 signified the potential for political Islam to govern Turkey.

Erbakan initiated policies that encouraged Islamic practices, including state-sanctioned religious events and programs supporting Islamic banking. His government attempted to strengthen Turkey’s relationships with Muslim-majority countries.

Known as the “postmodern coup,” the 1997 intervention by the Turkish military did not involve overt force but pressured Erbakan to resign, ultimately banning the Welfare Party. This move reaffirmed the military’s influence and underscored the ongoing tension between secular and Islamist forces within Turkey.

The Justice and Development Party (AKP), led by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, emerged victorious in the 2002 elections, promising reforms and a departure from traditional Islamist rhetoric. However, over time, Erdoğan and the AKP began to pursue a governance model that merged conservative Islamic values with nationalist ideals, which has led to significant changes in Turkey’s secular-democratic framework.

Under AKP rule, religious content in education expanded, and government policies increasingly reflected Islamic principles. The Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) became more influential, promoting Islamic values at a national level.

Following a failed coup attempt in 2016, Erdoğan implemented measures to centralize power, weakening democratic institutions. Emergency laws, the restructuring of the judiciary, and increased control over the media further eroded Turkey’s democratic landscape.

Erdoğan has actively used Islam as a unifying force, portraying himself as the defender of Muslim values domestically and in foreign policy. This “neo-Ottoman” approach reflects his strategy to extend Turkey’s influence, especially in regions with historical and religious connections to the Ottoman Empire, such as the Balkans and the Caucasus.

Erdoğan’s administration pursued policies that framed Turkey as a leader in the Muslim world, providing support for Muslim communities abroad and asserting influence in conflicts involving Muslim populations. This approach often aligns with nationalist rhetoric, combining Turkish identity with Islamic solidarity.

Analysis of Turkey’s Secular and Democratic Crisis

This chapter examines the implications of Turkey’s secular and democratic trajectory through a detailed analysis of the historical events and policies discussed in Chapter 3. Drawing on a range of academic sources, historical data, and expert insights, the analysis explores how Turkey’s unique approach to secularism, its struggles with political Islam, and the recurring role of the military have contributed to the ongoing crisis in achieving a stable secular democracy. The following sections provide an analytical perspective on the critical factors that have hindered Turkey’s democratic development and the institutional challenges to secularism.

Atatürk’s secular reforms were inherently authoritarian, as they were enforced through strict policies and military oversight. Although these reforms succeeded in institutionalizing secular principles, the methods used alienated significant portions of the population who felt their cultural and religious identities were under threat.

Atatürk’s policies, such as the abolition of the Caliphate and the imposition of secular laws, were implemented top-down without broad societal consensus. Consequently, secularism was perceived as an elite-driven project rather than a value embraced by the entire society.

 The rigid enforcement of secularism created resentment among conservative populations, especially in rural areas, where Islamic identity remained strong. This resentment laid the groundwork for the future mobilization of political Islam, as the population sought to restore aspects of its religious and cultural heritage within the political sphere.

The military’s interventionist role, established during Atatürk’s rule, became a defining characteristic of Turkish secularism. However, the repeated reliance on military intervention created a paradox, as secularism was defended through undemocratic means, weakening the foundation of democracy in Turkey.

The transition to a multi-party system in 1950 represented a shift toward democratization, allowing religiously-inclined parties to gain political influence. However, this democratization process revealed tensions between democratic freedoms and secularism:

With the rise of the Democratic Party and later the Welfare Party, political Islam gained democratic legitimacy. Parties with a more tolerant stance toward Islam garnered popular support, especially in conservative regions. While these parties were democratically elected, their policies often challenged the secular framework, highlighting an inherent tension between democratic governance and secular ideals in Turkey.

The 1960, 1971, and 1980 military coups aimed to restore secularism but paradoxically weakened democratic institutions each time. These interventions reinforced the perception that secularism could not coexist with democratic choice, as secularism was repeatedly protected through anti-democratic means.

Following the 1980 coup, the military adopted a strategy that used moderate Islam as a counterbalance to leftist ideologies. This shift in policy marked the beginning of political Islam’s institutionalization, as the state encouraged religious education and established a “Turkish-Islamic synthesis.” Although this approach aimed to support national unity, it inadvertently strengthened the role of Islam in Turkish politics.

Under Erdoğan’s Justice and Development Party (AKP), Turkey has experienced a gradual shift toward authoritarian governance, coupled with the strategic use of Islam to consolidate power. The AKP, especially under Erdoğan’s leadership, gradually eroded secular institutions by appointing religiously-aligned officials and expanding the influence of the Directorate of Religious Affairs. This weakened the secular framework and fostered an environment where state policies increasingly reflected Islamic principles.

Following the failed coup attempt in 2016, Erdoğan used emergency powers to suppress opposition and limit press freedoms. The detention of political opponents and control over the judiciary signaled a departure from democratic norms, indicating a preference for authoritarian control.

Erdoğan’s “neo-Ottoman” rhetoric positions Turkey as a protector of Muslim communities, especially in former Ottoman territories. This strategy seeks to combine Turkish nationalism with Islamic identity, fostering domestic and regional support. However, this approach has marginalized secular groups and polarized Turkish society.

The complex interaction between secularism, democracy, and political Islam has led to an identity crisis within Turkish society. The competing visions of Turkey – as a secular, democratic state versus a conservative Islamic republic – have created deep political and social divides.

Turkey’s approach to secularism differs from Western models, as the state controls and regulates religion through institutions like the Directorate of Religious Affairs. Rather than achieving a clear separation of religion and state, Turkish secularism has often involved the state’s intervention in religious practices, a contradiction that has fueled criticism from both secularists and Islamists.

Political Islamists have often viewed democracy as a means to an end, using democratic institutions to gain power and implement conservative agendas. The AKP’s electoral successes illustrate this dynamic, as democratic mechanisms were used to achieve policies that conflicted with Turkey’s secular principles. The rise of political Islam and the re-emergence of neo-Ottoman ideals have polarized Turkish society, creating a rift between secular urban elites and conservative rural populations. This division has made it challenging to establish a cohesive national identity, with secularism and democracy remaining contested values.

Erdoğan’s administration has used Islamic solidarity as a political tool in regions like the Balkans and the Caucasus, advocating for Muslim communities and seeking to expand Turkey’s influence under the guise of shared religious identity. This approach aligns with Turkey’s domestic policies promoting Islam, reinforcing Turkey’s identity as both a Muslim-majority country and a regional leader.

Turkey’s fluctuating relationship with the European Union highlights its struggle to reconcile its secular-democratic aspirations with its Islamic political dynamics. While Turkey’s EU candidacy signaled a commitment to democratic reforms, the recent authoritarian turn under Erdoğan has strained this relationship, casting doubt on Turkey’s ability to fulfill EU democratic standards.

Conclusion

Turkey was the first Islamic-majority nation to attain candidate status for EU membership. Despite the Ottoman Empire often being labeled the “sick man of Europe,” Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s vision was for the Turkish Republic to evolve into a secular and democratic state. However, the institutional implementation of his reforms bore an authoritarian character, enforced by military power and a rigid approach toward opposition. This authoritarian foundation weakened the democratic spirit of Turkey’s secularism. As a result, while Turkey’s political elite was indeed secular, it was not democratic.

After World War II, the introduction of democratic reforms allowed politically conservative forces, including those sympathetic to political Islam, to emerge in Turkish society. These democratic forces, unlike Atatürk’s rigid secular elite, were less fervent in enforcing secularism, thereby giving political Islam a foothold, especially in rural and conservative regions. The election of leaders like Celal Bayar and Adnan Menderes, who advocated a softer stance toward religion, underscored this shift. The military, as the guardian of Atatürk’s vision, felt compelled to intervene, believing that their intervention was necessary to restore Turkey’s secular principles. Yet, these interventions paradoxically undermined democracy itself, highlighting the incompatibility of secularism and democracy within Turkey’s authoritarian structure.

Subsequent coups and interventions further polarized Turkish society. The 1980 coup proved particularly pivotal, as it not only halted democratic processes but also inadvertently compromised secularism. In an attempt to counter leftist ideologies, the military encouraged a Turkish-Islamic synthesis, leading to a more significant role for religion in public life and providing a foundation for the rise of political Islam. Educational policies promoting religious schools created a base for future political leaders like Erbakan and Erdoğan. This ideological shift was used to undermine leftist forces, yet also legitimized political Islam’s presence, especially as conservative, economically liberal right-wing parties capitalized on the emerging urban population with traditionalist leanings.

Despite the AKP’s democratic electoral victories, democracy was instrumentalized as a means to advance religious conservatism, rather than an end goal. This approach led to a crisis of democracy under Erdoğan, as the shift toward authoritarianism and increasing religious influence directly clashed with democratic values. By progressively weakening secular institutions, Erdoğan fostered a political landscape where religious nationalism, embodied by neo-Ottomanism, rose to prominence, further polarizing Turkish society.

Turkey’s identity crisis—caught between secular democracy and religious conservatism—has thus impeded the establishment of a stable democratic system. The state’s control over religious institutions and its fluctuating commitment to democratic values illustrate the unresolved contradictions at the heart of Turkey’s institutional framework. While Turkey remains officially secular, and not a closed autocracy, its model of secularism remains compromised by authoritarian legacies and the recent rise of political Islam.

In conclusion, Atatürk’s reforms were secular in essence but authoritarian in execution, creating a secularism that lacked democratic underpinnings. As Turkey’s political landscape evolved, democratization gave way to the resurgence of political Islam, ultimately leading to a secularism crisis fueled by the military’s interventions and political Islam’s democratic legitimization. The findings of this research underscore the complexity of Turkey’s secular-democratic identity and highlight the ongoing challenges it faces in reconciling these two ideals.

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