Giorgi Koberidze

Assistant-Professor

Georgian Institute of Public Affairs

Tbilisi, Georgia

Abstract

This article examines the rise of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and the ideological development of Erdoğanism within Turkish politics. Emerging as a formidable political force since Erdoğan’s ascension to prime minister in 2003, Erdoğanism has redefined Turkish political dynamics through its blend of conservative democracy and strong, centralized leadership. This ideology, founded upon charismatic authority and electoral consent, has led to a departure from Turkey’s Kemalist secular principles, advocating for values drawn from Ottoman traditions. While Erdoğanism incorporates religious conservatism, it is distinguished by its reliance on Erdoğan’s personality cult rather than purely Islamist principles, thereby challenging traditional Islamist factions within Turkey. As Erdoğan consolidated power, Erdoğanism gained traction as a form of illiberal democracy that prioritizes centralized authority over institutional checks and balances. The study contextualizes Erdoğanism’s trajectory by analyzing its ideological roots, populist appeal, and impacts on both Turkish domestic policy and foreign relations. This research contributes to an understanding of the factors that enable the entrenchment of personalized political ideologies in modern nation-states.

Keywords: Erdoğanism, Turkish politics, conservative democracy, authoritarianism, neo-Ottomanism, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, illiberal democracy, cult of personality, Turkish secularism, Kemalism

Introduction

The political landscape of modern Turkey has been profoundly shaped by the influence of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and the ideological framework that has come to be known as Erdoğanism. Since Erdoğan’s initial rise to power as prime minister in 2003 and his subsequent election as president in 2014, he has emerged as one of Turkey’s most polarizing and impactful leaders. Erdoğanism, with its roots in conservative democracy, challenges Turkey’s founding principles of secularism and aligns more closely with Ottoman cultural values and religious conservatism. This ideology has generated intense debates within Turkey and internationally, as it juxtaposes Western democratic values with a model that prioritizes centralized, charismatic authority and traditional values.

Erdoğan’s political trajectory reflects a shift from his early affiliation with Islamist movements to his establishment of the Justice and Development Party (AKP) in 2001, which presented a more moderate, reformist stance aimed at fostering economic liberalization and democratic ideals. Yet, over the years, Erdoğan’s leadership style has become increasingly authoritarian, characterized by a consolidation of executive power, suppression of opposition voices, and the promotion of an ideological agenda that advocates for a “New Turkey” departing from Kemalist secularism.

The introduction of Erdoğanism as a political ideology has not only redefined the governance structure of Turkey but has also led to a reorientation in foreign policy, moving towards a neo-Ottoman and pan-Islamist perspective. This paper explores the key principles of Erdoğanism, its rise in the context of Turkish conservatism, and its implications for democracy in Turkey. By examining Erdoğan’s impact on both domestic and international spheres, this study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how Erdoğanism has reshaped the Turkish state and society, questioning the sustainability of this governance model in the future.

The Rise of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in Turkish Politics

Recep Tayyip Erdoğan’s ascent in Turkish politics is a story of strategic adaptation, charismatic appeal, and ideological evolution. Emerging from humble beginnings in Istanbul’s working-class district of Kasimpasa, Erdoğan’s early political life was shaped by his engagement with Islamist ideologies and his affiliation with the National Salvation Party, led by prominent Islamist figure Necmettin Erbakan. This period laid the groundwork for Erdoğan’s initial political values, which were rooted in religious conservatism and an opposition to the secular principles that had dominated Turkey since its founding by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.

Erdoğan’s first major public role came when he was elected mayor of Istanbul in 1994, representing the pro-Islamist Welfare Party. As mayor, he earned a reputation for pragmatism, successfully implementing policies that modernized Istanbul’s infrastructure and addressed pressing social issues. His leadership in Istanbul showcased his ability to appeal to the Turkish public by blending religious values with effective governance, a formula that would later characterize his broader political platform. However, his overt Islamic rhetoric led to his imprisonment in 1999 for inciting religious hatred, an event that ironically enhanced his popularity and reinforced his image as a champion of conservative values.

In 2001, Erdoğan co-founded the Justice and Development Party (AKP), a political movement that sought to appeal to a broader spectrum of Turkish society by positioning itself as a “conservative democratic” party rather than an Islamist one. The AKP’s platform emphasized economic reform, social justice, and EU integration, appealing to both religious conservatives and those seeking political stability and economic growth. In the 2002 general election, the AKP won a landslide victory, propelling Erdoğan to the prime minister’s office in 2003. This marked the beginning of a new era in Turkish politics, with Erdoğan as the central figure.

During his early years in power, Erdoğan was widely regarded as a reformist leader. He implemented numerous economic and social reforms that strengthened Turkey’s economy, expanded the middle class, and improved relations with the European Union. By promoting policies that were favorable to business and foreign investment, Erdoğan oversaw a period of rapid economic growth, which bolstered his popularity and solidified his image as a dynamic and progressive leader. His government’s initial support for freedom of expression and religious rights contributed to Turkey’s modernization and enhanced its image on the international stage.

However, Erdoğan’s leadership style began to shift as he consolidated power. His electoral victories enabled him to strengthen his control over Turkey’s institutions, from the judiciary to the media, gradually moving away from the democratic principles he once championed. By the time he assumed the presidency in 2014, Erdoğan had transitioned from a reform-oriented prime minister to an increasingly authoritarian leader. The failed coup attempt in 2016 further intensified his centralization of power, as he used the incident to justify sweeping purges of military officials, civil servants, and academics, consolidating his control over all aspects of Turkish governance.

Erdoğan’s rise in Turkish politics reflects a complex journey shaped by pragmatism, religious conservatism, and a populist appeal that resonates with a significant segment of the Turkish population. His leadership has redefined Turkish politics, creating a polarized environment in which Erdoğanism has emerged as a distinct ideology that challenges Turkey’s secular heritage. This section outlines the early influences and key moments that propelled Erdoğan to national prominence, setting the stage for the development of Erdoğanism as both a personal and political force within Turkey.

Defining Erdoğanism: Core Principles and Ideological Roots

Erdoğanism, as an ideology, is a complex blend of political pragmatism, religious conservatism, and charismatic authority, characterized by a centralized leadership model and a populist approach that resonates deeply with significant portions of Turkish society. Unlike traditional Islamism, Erdoğanism does not strictly adhere to religious doctrine but instead integrates religious symbolism to appeal to a conservative electorate while prioritizing Erdoğan’s personalized authority over strict Islamic tenets. This ideology has evolved into a form of conservative democracy that promotes strong, centralized leadership, with a primary emphasis on electoral legitimacy rather than checks and balances, and it derives much of its legitimacy from Erdoğan’s personal appeal and populist messaging.

At its core, Erdoğanism values national sovereignty, Turkish identity, and a return to values reminiscent of the Ottoman Empire. It diverges sharply from Kemalism, the secular and Western-oriented ideology of modern Turkey’s founder, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Erdoğanism is highly critical of Kemalist secularism, seeking instead to foster a Turkey that aligns more closely with traditional and religious values. This ideological shift is evident in Erdoğan’s emphasis on the “New Turkey” narrative, which envisions a Turkey rooted in its Ottoman past and more assertive in its regional and global positioning. Erdoğan’s speeches and policy decisions often evoke Ottoman cultural elements, appealing to a sense of national pride and historic continuity that resonates with his support base.

Key principles of Erdoğanism also include a strong resistance to Western influence in both domestic and foreign affairs. Erdoğanism promotes a foreign policy framework often referred to as Neo-Ottomanism, seeking to reestablish Turkey as a central power in regions once part of the Ottoman Empire, including the Middle East, the Balkans, and parts of North Africa. This foreign policy direction is built on a combination of Turkish nationalism and pan-Islamism, positioning Turkey as a leader among Muslim-majority nations and a counterbalance to Western intervention in the region. Through this lens, Erdoğanism portrays Turkey as an independent and sovereign actor, skeptical of Western political influence, and more closely aligned with the interests and values of its regional neighbors.

A defining feature of Erdoğanism is its reliance on Erdoğan’s charismatic authority and the development of a cult of personality around him. This personalistic form of governance amplifies his influence, framing Erdoğan not only as a political leader but as a “Man of the Nation” (“Milletin Adamı”) — a symbol of Turkish strength and moral authority. This cult of personality has strengthened Erdoğan’s hold on power and has made him a polarizing figure, as supporters view him as a protector of Turkish identity and values, while critics see him as an authoritarian leader undermining democratic institutions.

Critically, Erdoğanism has reshaped Turkey’s democratic framework into what some scholars refer to as an “illiberal democracy” or “electoral authoritarianism.” While elections remain a cornerstone of Erdoğan’s legitimacy, the ideology prioritizes executive dominance, often sidelining the separation of powers and undermining judicial independence and media freedom. Erdoğanism’s focus on majoritarian rule often disregards the pluralistic values foundational to liberal democracy, leading to increased polarization within Turkish society and the suppression of dissenting voices.

In summary, Erdoğanism is an ideology that combines elements of conservative democracy, nationalism, and religious symbolism with a centralized, charismatic leadership style. Its roots lie in both traditional Turkish conservatism and Ottoman-inspired values, blending national pride with a skepticism toward Western influence and a call for stronger regional influence. As an ideological departure from Kemalism, Erdoğanism has redefined Turkey’s identity, governance structure, and foreign policy objectives, creating a political landscape centered around Erdoğan’s personal authority and a vision for a culturally conservative and geopolitically assertive Turkey.

From Kemalism to Erdoğanism: A Shift in Turkish Political Ideology

The ideological transformation from Kemalism to Erdoğanism marks one of the most profound shifts in Turkish political history. Founded on the secular, pro-Western principles established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in the early 20th century, Kemalism laid the groundwork for a modern, European-oriented Turkish Republic. It emphasized secularism, nationalism, and Westernization, rooting Turkey’s identity in a rejection of the Ottoman past and an embrace of a progressive, republican future. Over nearly a century, these principles shaped Turkish institutions, education, and foreign policy, fostering a national identity that valued secular governance and sought alignment with Western democracies.

Erdoğanism, however, introduced a new paradigm, challenging the Kemalist legacy by emphasizing conservative democracy rooted in religious and traditional values. Central to Erdoğanism is a conservative model that supports democratic principles but prioritizes a strong, centralized leadership often at odds with Western liberal democratic norms. Under Erdoğan, conservative democracy has gained traction as a blend of populism and nationalism that resonates with Turkey’s religiously conservative base, positioning Erdoğan not only as a leader but as a symbol of Turkish identity and values. This ideological shift is deeply intertwined with the Justice and Development Party (AKP), which Erdoğan co-founded in 2001, initially promoting economic reform, EU integration, and democratic values to appeal to a broad electorate.

Conservative democracy, as embodied in Erdoğanism, reframes the democratic process to emphasize electoral consent over institutional checks and balances. This model, often described as “illiberal democracy” or “electoral authoritarianism,” remains rooted in popular support but operates with a weakened separation of powers. While elections are central to Erdoğan’s legitimacy, his administration has curtailed judicial independence, restricted media freedoms, and consolidated power in the executive branch, which has diminished the influence of Turkey’s once robust institutions. Erdoğan’s leadership has fostered a governance style that draws strength from populist rhetoric, positioning his rule as a response to the popular will and as a safeguard against what his supporters perceive as elite-driven, secular Kemalist values.

Integral to Erdoğanism is the concept of Neo-Ottomanism, a foreign policy framework that revives elements of the Ottoman legacy and envisions Turkey as a central power in the Middle East, Balkans, and North Africa. In contrast to Kemalism’s Western-oriented stance, Neo-Ottomanism positions Turkey as an independent actor, rooted in its historical Ottoman influence, and emphasizes Turkey’s role as a leader among Muslim-majority nations. This foreign policy approach supports a vision of Turkish hegemony in its historical sphere of influence, asserting itself through military, political, and cultural engagements in regions that were once part of the Ottoman Empire. Neo-Ottomanism resonates with Erdoğan’s conservative democratic ideals, as it seeks to expand Turkey’s regional influence and counterbalance Western power, presenting Turkey as a defender of Islamic and cultural solidarity in the region.

Erdoğanism’s emphasis on Turkey’s Ottoman heritage and conservative values reflects a direct challenge to Kemalism’s secular and Western-aligned identity. By invoking Ottoman symbols and traditions, Erdoğan has reshaped Turkey’s collective memory, fostering a narrative that reinterprets Turkish history in alignment with a culturally conservative worldview. This narrative has proved appealing to many Turkish citizens, who see in Erdoğan’s leadership a revival of national pride and a reassertion of Turkey’s unique identity in a world increasingly influenced by globalism and Western norms.

Erdoğanism’s Impact on Turkish Governance and Society

Erdoğanism has fundamentally altered the landscape of Turkish governance and society, embedding itself as a dominant force that impacts nearly every dimension of political, social, and institutional life. Under the influence of Erdoğan’s conservative democracy, Turkish governance has evolved toward a highly centralized model, one that prioritizes electoral legitimacy but places less emphasis on institutional checks and balances. This transformation, often described as a shift toward “illiberal democracy,” has allowed Erdoğan to consolidate executive authority, curtail the judiciary, and limit media freedoms, effectively reshaping Turkish democracy into a majoritarian system centered on his leadership.

One of the most significant changes has been the concentration of power within the executive branch, especially following Turkey’s 2017 constitutional referendum, which transformed the country from a parliamentary to a presidential system. This shift has enabled Erdoğan to operate with expansive powers, reducing the legislative and judicial branches’ influence and elevating the presidency as the focal point of Turkish political life. The new governance model under Erdoğanism thus weakens the traditional separation of powers, positioning the executive as the primary decision-maker in both domestic and foreign affairs.

The impact of Erdoğanism on Turkish society has been equally profound. Emphasizing conservative values rooted in Turkey’s Ottoman and Islamic heritage, Erdoğan has fostered a cultural shift that challenges the secularism foundational to Kemalist Turkey. His government has encouraged religious conservatism in education, public life, and social policies, aiming to foster a “pious generation” aligned with traditional values. This shift resonates strongly with Erdoğan’s conservative base, particularly in rural areas and among Turkey’s working class, who view his leadership as a restoration of Turkey’s cultural roots and a rejection of secular elitism.

Yet, Erdoğanism has also generated significant polarization within Turkish society. The emphasis on conservative values and centralized leadership has created deep divides between secular and religious communities, urban and rural populations, and supporters and critics of Erdoğan. This societal polarization is further fueled by Erdoğan’s populist rhetoric, which often frames opposition as threats to national stability or foreign agents working against Turkey’s interests. Consequently, dissenting voices, from journalists to academics and political activists, have faced increasing pressures, including censorship, job loss, and legal action.

Critics argue that Erdoğanism’s approach to governance represents a form of authoritarianism masked as democracy. Though Erdoğanism retains democratic processes, notably elections, it has been criticized for undermining democratic norms, restricting media freedoms, and weakening independent institutions. The judiciary has been subject to increasing executive influence, while media outlets critical of Erdoğan have been systematically suppressed or taken over by pro-government interests, creating an environment where free expression is limited. Civil society, once vibrant and diverse, faces significant restrictions, with NGOs, opposition groups, and even educational institutions subjected to state control and scrutiny.

Internationally, Erdoğanism has attracted criticism for its “illiberal” nature, positioning Turkey alongside other states, such as Hungary and Russia, where populist leaders prioritize majoritarian rule over pluralistic democratic values. Foreign leaders, scholars, and human rights organizations have expressed concerns over Turkey’s democratic backsliding, with many seeing Erdoğanism as an elective dictatorship that prioritizes centralized power at the expense of political freedoms and human rights. This criticism became particularly pronounced after the 2016 attempted coup, which Erdoğan used to justify extensive purges of the military, judiciary, media, and education sectors, consolidating his control over the state apparatus under the pretext of national security.

The challenges posed by Erdoğanism’s authoritarian tendencies have left Turkey in a delicate position, both domestically and internationally. Domestically, the centralization of power has led to economic volatility, diminished investor confidence, and increased social unrest. The erosion of democratic institutions and the growing influence of a single leader have raised concerns about the resilience of Turkey’s democratic framework. Internationally, Erdoğan’s assertive foreign policy and emphasis on Neo-Ottomanism, coupled with his resistance to Western influence, have strained Turkey’s relationships with the EU, NATO, and other Western allies, shifting the country’s orientation toward a more independent but contentious role on the global stage.

Conclusion

The emergence of Erdoğanism marks a transformative period in Turkish politics, where traditional democratic principles have been reshaped by the consolidation of power, religious conservatism, and a renewed emphasis on Ottoman-inspired nationalism. As a political ideology, Erdoğanism has redefined Turkey’s identity, governance, and foreign policy, challenging the secular, Western-oriented framework established under Kemalism. Through a blend of conservative democracy, charismatic leadership, and Neo-Ottoman aspirations, Erdoğan has crafted an ideology that resonates with a substantial portion of Turkish society, appealing to religious, traditional, and nationalist sentiments.

Yet, Erdoğanism’s legacy is complex and deeply contested. While Erdoğan’s policies have garnered widespread support among conservative and rural constituencies, they have also polarized Turkish society, intensifying divisions between secular and religious groups and creating an environment of heightened political tension. The shift toward illiberal democracy and authoritarian practices, including the erosion of judicial independence and media freedom, has raised concerns over the sustainability of Turkish democracy and the resilience of its institutions. The model of governance promoted by Erdoğanism, which prioritizes electoral consent and centralized power, diverges sharply from the democratic pluralism foundational to modern Turkey, sparking international criticism and concerns over Turkey’s democratic trajectory.

In foreign affairs, Erdoğan’s Neo-Ottoman stance has aimed to position Turkey as a regional leader, asserting its influence across the Middle East, Balkans, and North Africa. While this approach has enhanced Turkey’s visibility on the global stage, it has also strained relationships with Western allies, pushing Turkey toward a more independent but at times isolated stance in international relations.

The future of Erdoğanism and its impact on Turkey’s political landscape remains uncertain. As Erdoğan’s personal influence shapes the direction of the nation, the long-term viability of Erdoğanism will depend on its ability to adapt to evolving social, economic, and geopolitical challenges. Whether Erdoğanism will endure as a defining force in Turkish politics or face backlash from an increasingly polarized society is a question that will shape Turkey’s political and social landscape for years to come. Ultimately, Erdoğanism’s legacy may serve as a case study in the rise of personalized, conservative populism within a modern democracy, offering insights into the complexities and consequences of centralized leadership in an era of global democratic change.

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